The Decline of the Sultanate
The golden age of Aceh did not end until the end of seventeenth century. However, the death of Sultan Iskandar Muda in 1636 marked the starting point of decline. His absence gradually led to the erosion of Aceh's political and commercial power. The weakening of the Kingdom of Aceh, Darussalam, was caused by two major threats, from outside and inside the Kingdom. The outside threat was the intervention of European powers, particularly the Dutch and the British, in their struggle to dominate trade in Southeast Asia. The international trade along the Strait of Malacca was in turmoil after the Dutch invaded Malacca in 1640. Aceh was then governed by Muda's successor, Sultan Iskandar Thani. Long periods of war weakened the Kingdom and decreased the capability of its armed forces. Internally, a conflict emerged after the death of Sultan Iskandar Thani, stirred up by the male ulee balang (distict leaders), who disagreed with leadership by queens.
Although Aceh was developing steadily in many areas, the internal and external threats eroded the Kingdom's economic and military power. During the reigns of the four queens, a number of coups occurred. The aristocrats and merchants attempting to undermine the queens' leadership attracted the sympathy of the influential religions group. Together they made a case that woman's leadership was against Islamic law. Their revolt against women's leadership culminated during the reign of Queen Naqiatuddin (1675 - 1678) when they set fire to the capital and destroyed most parts of the city, including the palace complex and the great mosque of Baiturrahman University. The long period of conflict was exacerbated by the Dutch intention to claim Aceh as a colony. Although the Acehnese never accepted Dutch authority, the Kingdom of Aceh ended when the Dutch successfully invaded the palace and captured the last Sultan, Muhammad Daud Syah, in 1903, after about sixty years of fighting.
Reliqious Buildings
From the early period of Islamisation a number of mosques were built in the capital city. Recorder in the history that the earliest mosque was built during the reign of Sultan Alaidin Mahmud Syah I (1267-1309) in the court of his palace, Darud-dunia, now located in Banda Aceh. The Sultan named the mosque Baiturrahman (the House of the Merciful). Later, another mosque, Baiturrahim (the House of the Compassionate) was built by Sultan Alaidin Syamsu Syah (1497-1511) in the palace court Kuta Alam, now also located in Banda Aceh. During the seventeenth century several other mosques were built in the city of Aceh. Iskandar Muda rebuilt the mosque Baitur-Rahman, then located in the city of Aceh, and built the Indrapuri mosque, which was named after the place where it was built, about thirty kilometres outside the capital city.
The original mosque was first built in the Sultan Iskandar Muda era (1607-1636 CE), when Aceh was at the pinnacle of its glory. From Peter Mundy’s sketch (1637) of Banda Aceh, we can see that Baiturrahman Mosque was a square building made of wood. The shape of its roof was a four-tiered pyramid with a wide hipped meru roofs (types of roofs). This building was surrounded by several layers of fortresses. Johannes Vingboom’s sketch made several years after that, at the end of 17th century, shows the roof only had three layers, instead of four.
The Grand Mosque of Baiturrahman in the 17th century, painted by Peter Mundy (Source : Reid 1996, Indonesian Heritage; Early of Modern History)
The transformation of Baiturrahman Mosque’s roof from a layered pyramid roof to a kubah (dome) occurred at the end of 19th century when Aceh Darussalam Kingdom was at war with the Colonial Dutch Indies over mercantile treaties. The economic interaction between Aceh and several European countries (such as England and France) and Ottoman Empire, had raised Dutch fears that these countries had a desire to control Aceh. As a result, the Netherland Indies government, represented by F.N. Nieuwenhuijsen, engaged in a political manoeuvre to make Aceh become a part of the colonial Netherland Indies empire. However, the Aceh Darussalam Kingdom refused this offer because it chose to be an independent kingdom. As a consequence, the colonial government entered into its first acts of aggression in Aceh at 26th March, 1873. One of its strategies to destroy the power and spirit of Acehnese people was by demolishing the palaces and mosques.
After many days of battle, on 6th January, 1874, the Dutch troops were able to take control of Baiturrahman Mosque. It was a very difficult fight that caused the death of the Dutch leader, Major General J.H.R. Kohler, who was killed outright. Over Dutch 400 troops also died. The Dutch victory in destroying Baiturrahman Mosque was followed by the next victory, the fall of Dalam (Keraton or King’s Palace) in Kutaradja (King’s City or Banda Aceh today), 18 days after the first victory, on January, 24th 1874. Dalam was also burnt down by the Dutch troops. The fall of Baiturrahman Mosque and Dalam, followed by the death of the Aceh Sultan (King of Aceh) due to cholera, triggered the Dutch claim that they had won the war.
Recorder in the history, Baiturrahman mosque has been burnt twice by the Dutch. First, on April 10th, 1873. In this battle General Major J.H.R Kohler dead in front of the mosque, under a shady tree called “geulumpang” (Sterculia foetida) which later the Dutch called “Kohler Boom”. The second attack launched on January 6th, 1874. Although the Acehnese defended the mosque with all efforts, but due to the lack of weapons they had, the Dutch finally beat them. The Dutch succeeded seizing the mosque and burnt it down. Not long after that, the Dutch declared Aceh had been successfully conquered.
A subsequent strategy was the colonial tactic to obtain the sympathy of the people in their new colony. In the case of Aceh, the colonial government rebuilt the burnt Grand Mosque in Aceh as a gift or gesture of reconciliation, leading to an agreement of better cooperation between the colonial government and its colonised kingdom. The Aceh War (1873-1903) was the longest guerrilla combat and the most difficult defeat for Dutch during its determination to gain domination over the northern part of Sumatra. It caused great monetary loss for the Dutch government. As the result, Governor General J.W. van Lansberge rebuilt the Baiturrahman Mosque in order to get the sympathy of Acehnese people. After having lost this long war that had resulted in the deaths of many victims and had consumed considerable financial resources, which almost made the Dutch government bankrupt, the Netherland Indies government finally decided to limit their power over the territory and to control only the Kutaraja region. They also admitted that their strategy to burn Baiturrahman Mosque was a mistake.
On Thursday Syawal, 13th 1296 or 9th October 1879, at the exact location of previous Baiturrahman Mosque, the Netherland Indies government built a luxurious new mosque, completely different from its previous shape. Lieutenant General Karel Van der Heijden, who was the leader of Netherland Indies troops in Aceh, witnessed Teungku Kadhi Malikul Adil, the counsellor of Sultan Aceh for religious affairs, placing the first stone as a symbolic act to begin the new mosque’s construction. The mosque was designed by an Italian-Dutch architect, namely Meester de Bruins from Burgelijke Openbare Werken (Department of Public Works) in Batavia. The construction was supervised by L.P. Luyks and several other experts. In order to assure that the mosque was correctly designed in accordance with Islamic law, the construction was also supervised by Penghulu Besar Garut.
Map of Kutaraja (Banda Aceh) in 1875 (Source : KITLV, Leiden).
The government assigned Lie A. Sie, a Chinese lieutenant in Aceh, to be in charge for the construction. The cost agreed was f 203,000 (gulden). Most of the materials came from outside Aceh. Lime or mortar was from Penang Island, several varieties of stones were from the Netherlands, marble that was used for floors and stairs was from China, iron frames for the windows were from Belgium, wood for the window frames was from Burma and iron pillars were from Surabaya. The cost of the mosque construction became very expensive and exceeded its initial calculation because of these imported materials. After two years of construction, the colonial government finally handed over the mosque to the Acehnese people at Safar 24th 1299 or December 27th 1881 through an official ceremony, in which Netherland Indies General Governor for Aceh, A Pruijs van der Hoven, symbolically gave the key of the mosque to Teungku Kadhi Malikul Adil as the representative of the Acehnese people. Teungku Syeh Marhaban, a religious leader from Pidie was in charge of the mosque management.
Baiturrahman Mosque in 1890 (Source: KITLV Leiden)
The new Baiturrahman Mosque was reminiscent of Arabian, Classical European and Moorish architectural styles. The Moorish style was clearly shown from the interior and front entrance, recalling the Alhambra. The main characteristic was the use of geometrical shapes as the main element of decorative ornamentation, including naturalistic Arabesque motifs. The shape of the mosque floor plan was a reversed cruciform with 28 round columns and 16 square columns that became part of the building’s main structure. The mosque was 800 square metres in size. It had one main entrance. The wall surrounding the mosque had 34 high windows with iron Arabesque trellises.
The roof was covered by a main kubah (dome) characteristic of the Mughal architecture of Orchha and Jahangir Mandir (1605). The shape of the kubah’s base looked like an octagonal tambur or drum. The dome was made of wooden structures with one big column in the centre as the main column was used for supporting an umbrella-like structure in order to form its onion shape. This structure was covered by wooden boards that were heated or steamed to obtain the curved shape. (This technique was similar with ship-building methods). Finally, over these boards, the dome was covered by sirap (roof shingles).
The octagonal tambur created enough space for people to enter. This space could function as an office. This tambur had a stair leading down to the mosque’s main room. However, this stair is closed now and cannot be used. The tambur also was surrounded by terraces, from which people could see the town of Banda Aceh and the muazin could call the daily prayers (adzan).
Reconstruction of reversed cross plan of Baiturrahman Mosque as in 1879
Baiturrahman Mosque (Source: KITLV, Leiden)
The tambur’s floor was made of wood that also functioned as the ceiling of the mosque’s main room. The wooden floor was supported by 12 columns underneath it. The main columns, which were located in the corners of octagon modules, had a square base whereas on its four sides there were round-shaped base columns. The distance between each column was approximately three metres and this became the main structure to support the whole weight of the roof. In the beginning, the main room was covered with a dome-shaped roof and the other rooms were covered with pyramid hipped roofs.
In tracing and imagining the flow of architectural attributes from one part of the Islamic world to another, the Baiturrahman Mosque recalls the kubah (dome) shape of the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture in India. The use of chattris or domed pavilions is derived from the Rajput architecture of the Jahangir Mandir (1605). Indicating a bi-lateral flow of symbolic architectural references between the coloniser and the ‘colonised’, the stepped gable is reminiscent of the 16th-century Dutch merchant houses in Amsterdam. The Baiturrahman Mosque symbolizes an amalgamation of Occidental and Oriental cultures and supports the idea of exchange occurring not only in economic matters, but also in architecture.
The precedence for ogee arches can be traced to Moorish and Mughal architecture. The stucco infill panels for the Patio de los Arrayanes, Court of the Myrtles (14th-19thc.) recalls the rhythm of the arches and columns with diagonal Moorish lozenge diaper work used on the front façade of the Baiturrahman Mosque. The Jaipur Palace, (Rajendra Pol Gatewy, 1880) is contemporary and synonymous with the Baiturrahman Mosque in the delicate repetition of columns and ogee arches.
The reconstruction of main kubah of Baiturrahman Mosque.
However, the rebuilding of the mosque could not automatically soften the hearts of the Acehnese people since they refused to use the mosque for several reasons. The first reason was that the mosque was built by the Dutch, who were the enemy of the Acehnese people. The Aceh War, which had been seen as not only as a war for power and territory, but also as a religious war between the Dutch kape and the Acehnese Muslims, had created a strong resistance toward the existence of the mosque. This resistance became even stronger due to the reversed cruciform of the mosque’s floor plan.
Reconstruction of plan of Baiturrahman Mosque in 1936
The construction of the mosque was finished in 1881 and it has one dome. In 1936, when Y. Jongejans was the resident, two more buildings were added, one on the right and the other one was in the left of the mosque, making it three domes. The expansion plan cost 35.000 Gulden and it was designed by Ir. Mohammad Thaher, an Acehnese architect, and the Public Work Office did it. During the independence period, under Governor Ali Hasjmy’s administration, this mosque was expanded again and two minarets were built in each side, making it five domes altogether and hold 10.000 prayers. The expansion was entrusted to N.V. Zein from Jakarta. Indonesian Minister for Religious Affairs, K.H. M. Ilyas, did the laying of the cornerstone on Saturday Safar, 1st 1387 or August, 16th 1958. With the expansion, which finished in 1967, this mosque has five domes and two minarets.
In order to welcome Musabaqah Tilawatil Quran (MTQ) National Level-XII on June 7 started to finished June 14th 1981 in Banda Aceh, embellished with the court of the Grand Mosque, installation Klinkers over the streets in the yard of the Great Mosque. Improvements and additions to the place of porcelain and cleaning room, installation Krawang doors, chandelier, calligraphy verses of the Qur'an from brass, as well as the dome part installation fountain in the pond in the front yard.
At 1991, future expansion of Governor Ibrahim Hasan happened back yard that includes front and rear as well as the mosque itself. Parts of the mosque were expanded, including the addition of two domes, part mosque prayer hall floor, library, living room, offices, halls and cleaning place, and 6 local schools. While the expansion includes yard, garden and parking space as well as a single main tower and two minarets.
Judging from the history, Baiturrahman Mosque has a high value for the people of Aceh, Sultan Iskandar Muda because since it still stands majestically in the heart of the city of Banda Aceh. The Grand Mosque has many functions in addition to prayer, the venue for recitals, religious events such as events Great Prophet Muhammad's birthday and anniversaries Muharram, 1st and Musabaqah Tilawatil Qur'an and a shelter for city residents as well as newcomers and one of the attractions Islami.
The 7 elegant black domes, white-painted walls, 4 minarets, and the main minaret are some unique and special features of the Baiturrahman Grand Mosque. In front of the mosque, well known worldwide for its magnificent architecture and its history, one can see the pond protected by a short iron fence. The fame of this mosque surged when during the 2004 tsunami that devastated Aceh, the mosque remained miraculously intact when a record number of people took refuge here while the raging waters razed.
The main minaret as taken from the mosque front terrace. The path of paving blocks leads to the main minaret that is over 35 meters tall.
The magnificent Baiturrahman mosque is not only a place of worship and devotion for Muslims but is also an icon of the province of Aceh. Located in the heart of its capital city of Banda Aceh, this mosque is therefore one of the most popular tourist attractions in the Aceh region.
The elegant main minaret of the Masjid Raya Baiturrahman, "the Baiturrahman Grand Mosque” in the city of Banda Aceh welcomes visitors even before they reach the gate of one of Indonesia’s most beautiful mosques.
